Loss of identity in nineteenth‐century Norway: Oslo's House of Correction

In Norway, there was considerable overlap between the poor house, workhouse, and correctional facilities. An assemblage of human skeletal remains from Oslo's House Correction cemetery, largely comprised individuals disturbed during municipal development in 1989, consists c. 314 who died as inmates or residents; many were disabled elderly. Although names recorded at death, cemetery lacked grave markers a map, with no expectation families might one day reclaim relatives. All have been aged sexed anthropologically, samples collected for biomolecular investigations. Despite extensive archival documentation, including church book, their identities are shrouded by time. Observations age, injury, disease can suggest why ended up cemetery. But there, individual stories end lost. Perte d'identité dans la Norvège du XIX siècle : Maison de correction d'Oslo Résumé La frontière entre hospice, maison travail et était très floue en au XIXe siècle. Nous avons examiné un d'ossements humains provenant cimetière d'Oslo, dérangés pour plupart par des travaux d'aménagement municipaux 1989. Celui-ci se compose restes d'environ individus, détenus ou résidents cet établissement, dont beaucoup étaient handicapés âgés. Bien que le nom ait été relevé à leur décès, dépourvu pierres tombales comme plan, car on ne s'attendait pas ce familles viennent jour réclamer leurs membres. L’âge sexe tous les corps ont déterminés méthodes anthropologiques échantillons recueillis études biomoléculaires. Malgré d'abondantes archives, notamment noms notés registre l’église correction, l'identité ces individus s'est perdue passé. Des observations sur âge, blessures, maladies peuvent donner une idée raisons lesquelles ils sont retrouvés correction. Au-delà, il reste plus rien histoire individuelle ni identité. post-Reformation Europe, state control over citizenry increased nations determined boundaries codified trade, industries, taxation, land ownership (Mathiesen 1990: 11-12; Osterberg 1992; Pratt 1993: 376; Spierenburg 1987: 441). Economies became more cash-based wage-oriented (Ulvund 2012: 31). States coalesced into discrete entities, particular laws customs; each sought to develop unified social systems. somewhat sovereign Danish colony Norway,1 had an ‘industrious revolution’ (Larsen 2002: 191) long before Industrial Revolution arrived. Long hours hard work national virtues. Throughout Scandinavia, Christian identity (Koefoed 2021) related societal intolerance ‘immorality’ idleness created systems containment (Johansen, Debaere, Vandevelde & Vandenbroeck 2018; Larsen 192). Support poor, tolerance beggars, both varied according circumstance, although Scandinavia exhibited similarities than differences. The first workhouses found alongside earliest factories: downturn led uptake other (Foucault 1991: 133) labourers, enticed cities, nowhere else go. War soldiers returning war exacerbated these problems. These places ‘great confinement’ 1991) grew even repressive when famine economic disruption followed population growth once scarcity eased (Häkkinen 2002). This article explores (HoC) structure Norway 1730s 1860, using documentary evidence Oslo HoC. ‘Social deviants’ did not need commit crime be confined (Bergkvist 2008: 19-20; Ulvund 34). Folks subjected police-enforced cleansing included paupers, vagrants, those sentenced for, suspected of, petty crimes 35, 37). People mental illness (Blomberg 2005; Hals 2010: 10-11); wayward family members (Lis Soly 1997; 2012; van Leeuwen 37); unemployed, ill, elderly, 2008; 2002; 1993; 2012); untrustworthy servants (Hals 11); ‘loose morals’ considered sexually deviant labourers facing seasonal unemployment, desperate shelter Rahikainen 2012): all risked chose confinement. Norwegian HoCs explicitly provided ‘worthy’ ‘unworthy’ residents work, served low-security prisons 12; 197-8). To correct improper behaviour, institutions multi-purpose holding cells incorrigible, healthcare. Blomberg, example, describes how they ‘contained bridewell/correction pauper hospital, school wicked children, rooms weekly inspection prostitutes police doctor, university's dissection chamber’ (2005: 103). It seems apparent that care regularly conflated. Eventually, HoC actual penitentiary, sexes, adoption 1842 Penal Code Examination brings awareness lives historical inhabitants Norway's house system nineteenth century. Basic age sex profiles along observation pathological conditions bring light health issues brought possibly developing individual's tenure After seeing vagrants begging throughout while tour, King VI demanded ‘poverty problem’ solved: though infirm ill would cared anyone lacking ‘means live’, unable ‘unwilling’ added labour market 197). Thus, royal decree established 1741, Trondheim Bergen some form coerced mid-seventeenth century 2005: 100; Johansen al. 2018: 244; By 1820s, about fifty varying size spread across 198), largest ones being ‘urban phenomenon’ 38). main cities dioceses – Bergen, Trondheim, Askershus (containing Oslo), Kristiansand (Fig. 1) enormous (Bull 2014; 2012), drawing surrounding areas. took people east south 9), far 30-1). Before modern welfare healthcare consistent national, regulated support impaired. Aid available countryside city, leaving only dubious safety without relatives ‘outdoor relief’ within home parishes: localized aid cash, food, medical assistance (Höjer 1938: 74; 198). No such provision could growing city. HoC, solution drunkards, criminals, urban: most country remote rural, populated extended small farms 190-1). Christiania (as called 1624 1924) ‘forced institution’ (Harby 8) which inmates, adults, older children paid care, enriching 10) current chief inspector 27), working various factories on-site. Workdays began 5 a.m. 8 p.m., divided prayer sessions meals, time spent and, deemed worthy, education ‘The institution commonly known “spinning house”, “stocking “manufacturing house”’, wrote Harby (1990: 8); almost everyone worked looms, goods sold profit. 8-9) adds advertised ‘17 “fine wool products” 1768’. direct competition other, presumably wage-paying, businesses, which, if failed, back If industry failed turn profit, dropped it. addition squeezing perceived unwilling very ‘cared for’ same institution. Early hospitals designed provide wealthy: means, physician attend one's own (Grell Cunningham 5). Public healthcare, relief, linked beginnings. As puts it, chronically also entitled so it quite natural mixed together’ (2002: Care housing monasteries governed state. differed ‘slaveries’ Prisons analogous medieval jails, prior trial; military meant lengthy sentences (Holck 1990; 2012). sat them. Whereas beggar outcast, incarcerated physically removed society thus doubly outcast 2010). (almost) ages 16). During utilized on-site cemeteries (c. 1760-1833), significantly transformed warehouse paupers thieves prison magistrates criminal activity. Provision clothing instigated HoC's Overinspector, Jacob Frederik Hartwig, around 1791 measure improve lot ensured left least decent change clothes 36). quasi-improvement, owing lack funding government disinterest. 1837, become identical, akin uniforms. early 1807, investigation city authorities ‘appalling’;2 overcrowding TB synergistically decimate 1990). Broadly contemporary statistics encompassing wider population, comparative demographic profile Oslo. much larger Oslo, but came its populous suburbs 11), is reason believe substantially different. Indeed, reasonable view two latter history confining beacons develop. common factor type voluntarily entered, sent to, place: outcast. studying mid-nineteenth century, (2012) finds male general population. Between 1850 1859, approximately two-thirds (65.3 per cent) adults 30-59 years, roughly period (1850-67), 65 cent 30 59 39). Young males, 15-29, constituted 25 However, middle-aged younger males based 1865 census, accounted 49.6 40.0 respectively. reported 43.5 female 15 29 41). reports 72 females under 40 this time, Trondheim's 70 women under, despite making 36.3 40-1). Emigration 190), explain reduction numbers present. From start, housed sexes: thirteen nineteen Most single, (2012: 40) stating 1866 1869, 80 unmarried. men support, often alcoholics periods studied Hals, 1775-9 1795-9 (2010: 30), 50 female. For women, domestic servant few legal forms employment available, agricultural (Dahlström Liljeström 1983; Pol Kuijpers 2005). presumed workers 2010; 40). Simply having life marriage partner result charge ‘promiscuity’ hesitates presume ‘loose’ actually prostitutes. conflation prostitution single active existed past, historians, aware risk, fall line thinking (Karras 1999: 139).3 received fines extra-marital intercourse, especially deflowering virgins damaging morality widows, punishment severe: tangible proof, child, deny misconduct, flee unpaid fine confinement 11). Certainly, sexual marital statuses controlled While (Fyrand Granholt 1994; 41), tolerated monitored 103), worker necessarily out poor. suffering later stages venereal syphilis, caught through require infirmary addition, giving birth ‘in secret’ engaging adultery punished placement 11-13). Male homosexuality punishable behaviour 13). Until place mentally unwell 2010), cost-free dumping ground ‘burdensome members’ (van rural settings, localized, ‘gaol’, ‘holding cellar’, ‘shed’ employed farming communities until twentieth 100). individualized accommodated Olso's succeed removing ‘those incapable working’ 1776 100), then separate departments infirmaries maintained A ward 1829; truly independent open summer autumn churchyard, road construction Holck Kvaal, Sellevold Tore 1990b). burials late May archaeologists associated Culture History Museum University given three weeks academically excavate what Road Works Department authorized short academic excavation, laudably supporting via money. this, cleared site remainder ethically possible. Archaeologists stayed involved commercial work: meetings Department, scheduled frequent trips site, final collection November large trench (Sellevold 1990a). Excavators stated graves laid close together, disrupting earlier Coffins aligned north-south overlaying row east-west, little regard where head located coffin excavated dead culturally proper burial, treated deviants death life, adding another layer disregard existence. 1740 1940 [sic], therefore protected cultural law 9 June 1978. archaeological excavation plans subject decision-making builder. Antiquity Vibe Müller application 12 funds complete part On 17 July, informed granted 137,400 kr. archeological stipulation completed August 1990a: 1). material does regarding heritage, partially because originated after 1536 is, Reformation, automatically protected. Because [of this], investigations dependent Department's desire measures beginning, has co-operative, financing practical aspects 2,000 installation display project Second round excavations] appeared skeletons roadside digging finished, since ditch side dug m long, 2-5 wide, 3 deep. go straight undisturbed central layers, concerns necessary supervise ditch. good co-operation Eeg-Henriksen company went well: thirty-three gathered days possible basic documentation 3, emphasis added). invaluable studies poverty diseases disorders ‘the poor’; information autopsy/surgical practice; commentary changing ideas Age. Human churchyard represent claimed family. range isolated elements commingled 100 fairly (Madden Drew 2020). unique: safeguard post-1536 best our knowledge, anatomical specimens Norway. wide documents: City Archives, Schreiner Collection database, handwritten stored (some of) remains. genealogist traced read transcripts magistrate trial, burial records. Several Master's theses focus HoC; anthropologists participated 1989 written published popular articles. Almost Norwegian. Very English system; translating documents recent literature important overall project. Combined contextualizes relief past 200 years. map workhouse precinct, M.S. Døderlein, dates 1769 shows centre; 1794 Patrochlus Hirsch depicts precinct northwest corner 7). region expanded 1808 ‘with piece Overinspector's garden’ (Anders Daae, quoted 6). roadworks ‘new’ adjacent used services funerals unclaimed (Kvaal 1994: 364). reasons moved due ‘built clay’: unusable, previous decaying timely fashion Photographs 1910 show imposing street 2), courtyard flanked dormitories, rear outlined tall wooden fence. Overinspector (chief inspector), may gifted personal 6), Fredrik 1792 his accounts ‘kind humane man’. Other inspectors not, routinely beat prisoners cursing, forgetting pray, stealing 28). There bathing facilities laundry. Men slept bunk beds second-floor measuring 60 m2, dormitory, bed. quotes report 1810 Superintendent Blix, he states never fewer 150 residence: find many, ‘put half-adults adult together number beds, rest floor’ 29). Criminals ‘unruly youths’ shared cramped quarters separated. airless sleeping spaces reeked waste, sweat, filthy clothes, cooking smells, particulates 32). that, noted European countries, tools trade stay doing any hope re-entering (Anonymous 2013 [1885]; London [1903]; Shields Wilford 2018). enter free will, inside allowed leave several months, unlike daily, return (London [1903]: 43). Suspected criminals held ‘without financial permanent work’ unusual lower classes access servitude wealthy household. required reputation, health, appearance 1983). Upon release sentence, hardened receive help, nothing Potential employers hesitated hire released inmates; unsavoury reputation them homeless, risk re-incarceration. length respites shorten entryway revolving door curated Medical School, includes 2009, author asked examine remains, 122 boxes labs, formally accessioned. 2009 September 2010, materials organized numerically chronologically, box briefly examined. Preliminary notes taken sex, palaeopathology. 2014, new initiated comprehensively analyse remains; continued 2017. season yielded include twenty-three (‘Grav’ grave) university; eight F (Finds) series; thirty-nine V series (Veivesenet Crew series); ‘AI (Anatomical Institute) Material’; consecutive labelled date grave: ‘27 Nov. Grav 1’. labels (F series, etc.) sequentially assigned boxes, ‘Diverse’ ‘Omrotet’ (Commingled), series. ‘collection’ mix approximations location area (e.g. present series). 2016, we realized additional containing 1939 later, ‘boxes’ crania full skulls glass identified 33 Storgata, address 1990), originating ‘Tukthuskirkgaarden Oslo’. accessioned 4377-92 7274-307. Remains catalogued described ‘Krimmefengslets’ (‘criminal's jail’; Per Holck, pers. comm., 2016), ‘women's courtyard’, submitted Anatomical Institute March (Schreiner Archives). label skull 4379 reads: ‘Universitetets anatomiske institutt Antropologisk samling No. 4379, Krimmefengslets gårdsplass, Storgt. Oslo’, or, ‘University Anthropological Women's Prison Courtyard’, address. 1880, closed 1938, one-time all-female penitentiary. 7000 reading ‘Tukthuskirkgaarden, Oslo’ displayed crania; obtained. likely 4000 original near centre district, use (or 1800: see 75), courtyard, whereas derived church. Not display-case post-crania; post-crania crania, post-cranial contain fragments. Both total boxed 172. highlight provenance times appear entered collection. description formulation displays processes coming storage. adjacent) box, accession number, ‘fairly complete’ bones present; joints articulated; thoracic well represented; pelvic and/or high degree confidence. complete, skeleton present, corresponding developmentally size. needed articulation: hinge ulnae humerii; unambiguous connection os coxae sacrum; facets spine. young 4383 retains skull, scapulae humerii, right clavicle ulna, full, articulating pelvis, femur, ribs seriate indeed retain contact shafts severe kyphosis. estimates examined diseases, disorders, trauma. use, expected sexes represented assemblage. authors observed entire determine biological profile, individuals, identify processes, analysis gross inspection, digital photographs, measurements. Age probable descent (Brickley McKinley 2004; Buckberry Chamberlain Mays cohorts non-adults: foetal neonate (up 1 year), child (age 2-8), adolescent 12-17). Female 18-30), (30 over), (estimated over). estimated elements) designated ‘no determined’ male; attribution indicators, non-adult, adult, adult. listed indeterminate. Certain lesions